Drama is writing that is meant to be performed rather than read, ad is one of the five superstructures of writing (along with narrative, informational text, myth, and poetry). Drama includes plays, musical theatre, film, speeches, and, to a certain extent, lyrical music*. Drama spun out of myth; the earliest recorded dramas come from ancient Greece, where plays were religious rights depicting gods interacting with mythical heroes. However, starting with the comedies of Aristophanes, drama began to focus on modern people and problems, leaving behind its mythic roots.
Why We Read Shakespeare
Drama mainly consists of lines characters say with little description of setting and few deliberate actions. Therefore, the story requires actors (usually under the vision of a director) to complete the story through how lines are said and how they physically interact. Since different actors can interpret a character differently than another actor, this makes each performance of drama unique and makes actors (and directors) co-creators. This is why plays are not "authored" like other works (authored is a verb meaning "composed in writing"), but are instead wrought (a verb meaning "physically crafted," like a pot or a wheel), and the person who scripts the play is called a playwright.
Even the audience has a role in shaping the play when it comes to theatre. Theatre is any performance in front of a live audience sharing the same space as the performers (if the audience is viewing or listening live but is not in the same physical space as the performers, this is called broadcast). In theatre, audiences get to react to the performers in real time with their cathartic expressions (laughter, crying, gasps, shouts, etc) and performers adjust accordingly. Actors say that a performance with an actively engaged audience will be better than the same performance with a "dead" audience. This action, called reception, makes audience members co-creators as well.
Even the audience has a role in shaping the play when it comes to theatre. Theatre is any performance in front of a live audience sharing the same space as the performers (if the audience is viewing or listening live but is not in the same physical space as the performers, this is called broadcast). In theatre, audiences get to react to the performers in real time with their cathartic expressions (laughter, crying, gasps, shouts, etc) and performers adjust accordingly. Actors say that a performance with an actively engaged audience will be better than the same performance with a "dead" audience. This action, called reception, makes audience members co-creators as well.
The Globe and the World: Some Cultural Context
Today, "drama" is colloquial for problems between people ("OMG, Sierra is such drama! I can't believe she stole Landon away from Skye!"). This actually reflects the key to dramatic writing: character tension. Unlike narrative, which focus on how situations and events effect characters, drama focuses on how character decisions effect larger stories and situations.
High Class vs. Low Class: Prose vs. Verse
Today, "drama" is colloquial for problems between people ("OMG, Sierra is such drama! I can't believe she stole Landon away from Skye!"). This actually reflects the key to dramatic writing: character tension. Unlike narrative, which focus on how situations and events effect characters, drama focuses on how character decisions effect larger stories and situations.
King of the Word Nerds: Shakespeare's Language
Why do characters come into conflict? Characters build relationships, both positive and negative, based on their objective. An objective is what the character wants. At stasis, the characters are content and only want circumstances to not change. However, once a character wants something more-- a new opportunity, power, riches, freedom, love, etc.--they start creating conflict with other characters. Sometimes these characters have an opposite objective: In Hamilton, Samuel Seaberry wants others to remain loyal to Britain, while Alexander Hamilton wants to foment rebellion. Sometimes, characters fight because they have the same objective: both Alexander Hamilton and Aaron Burr both want a key role in shaping the new nation, but they have different ideas on how to go about creating a new country.
Characters can have multiple objectives, and their objectives can change over time. Countess Aurelia in The Madwoman of Chaillot starts with an objective of wanting to help Pierre find the will to live, but then she shifts to the broader objective of saving Paris from the wealthy industrialists who want to tear her apart. Characters whose objectives and motivations change over time are called dynamic characters; characters that never change objective (like the prospector who goes against Aurelia) are static characters.
Characters can have multiple objectives, and their objectives can change over time. Countess Aurelia in The Madwoman of Chaillot starts with an objective of wanting to help Pierre find the will to live, but then she shifts to the broader objective of saving Paris from the wealthy industrialists who want to tear her apart. Characters whose objectives and motivations change over time are called dynamic characters; characters that never change objective (like the prospector who goes against Aurelia) are static characters.
The Play's the Theme: Shakespeare's Main Motifs
Like objectives and motivations, dramas also share several other characteristics. While these following characteristics can appear in narratives and myths, they are noted here because they appear across most all drama.
PLANTS: Rivals are two people who come from a similar station in life, have similar traits, and seek the same objective; rivals even start out as friends and partners. However, each rival has a different motivation, or reason they want to reach the objective. Take Elphaba and Galinda's rivalry in their studies at Shiz in Wicked: Galinda is after the notoriety and popularity of studying with the Wizard, while Elphaba wants to study with the Wizard to prevent the animal abuses in Oz. Often, since rivals are after the same objective, they turn from friends to enemies. In most cases-- Elphaba and Galinda, Saliere and Mozart in Amadeus, Sweeney Todd and Judge Turpin in Sweeney Todd, Reagan and Goneril in King Lear, and so on-- one of the rivals is destroyed, literally or spiritually, by the other (though in some comedies, rivals become friends again, like Lysander and Demetrius in A Midsummer Night's Dream).
BIRDS: While conflict between characters in drama can make for some richly developed, real-life characters, not every character gets this kind of treatment. Novels are multiple-hour affairs and can dive into the nuances of every character. Unfortunately, dramas have live audiences who can only sit for so long, meaning most films and plays are under three hours (even television, which has 22-hour long seasons, builds in weekly episode breaks). This means dramas have to use other means to convey character details. One way is by making everything a character wears or holds associated with his or her personality (a term called Thing Theory, coined by philosopher Martin Heidegger). Another way is by reducing some characters down to stock characters with very basic traits and motivations. Stock characters began in Italian commedia del'arte, where every play had a similar clown character, old man character, hero character, and damsel character. Note that these are not archetypes: stock characters do not represent a broader truth or ideal, but say to the audience this character only cares about X. Many musicals uses stock characters in the form of the chorus, who pop up as soldiers or citizens or politicians when someone outside the main set of characters needs to provide a reaction.
SAILING: In narrative, characters primarily address other characters. Occasionally, they will address someone who is not physically present, such as when characters pray, write letters, or have hypothetical or imaginary conversations. This is a device called apostrophe. While not often used in literature, apostrophe is common in drama, as it allows the characters to communicate directly to the audience. A character's speech directed to the audience and no one else is called a soliloquy. Apostrophe is important in drama, as it lets the audience know the character's private thoughts and feelings that they don't want other characters to know. In Hamilton, the songs "Satisfied," "Wait for It," "Hurricane," and "I Know Him," among others, use apostrophe.
DISGUISE: Rivals are two people who come from a similar station in life, have similar traits, and seek the same objective; rivals even start out as friends and partners. However, each rival has a different motivation, or reason they want to reach the objective. Take Elphaba and Galinda's rivalry in their studies at Shiz in Wicked: Galinda is after the notoriety and popularity of studying with the Wizard, while Elphaba wants to study with the Wizard to prevent the animal abuses in Oz. Often, since rivals are after the same objective, they turn from friends to enemies. In most cases-- Elphaba and Galinda, Saliere and Mozart in Amadeus, Sweeney Todd and Judge Turpin in Sweeney Todd, Reagan and Goneril in King Lear, and so on-- one of the rivals is destroyed, literally or spiritually, by the other (though in some comedies, rivals become friends again, like Lysander and Demetrius in A Midsummer Night's Dream).
ANTIQUITY: Rivals are two people who come from a similar station in life, have similar traits, and seek the same objective; rivals even start out as friends and partners. However, each rival has a different motivation, or reason they want to reach the objective. Take Elphaba and Galinda's rivalry in their studies at Shiz in Wicked: Galinda is after the notoriety and popularity of studying with the Wizard, while Elphaba wants to study with the Wizard to prevent the animal abuses in Oz. Often, since rivals are after the same objective, they turn from friends to enemies. In most cases-- Elphaba and Galinda, Saliere and Mozart in Amadeus, Sweeney Todd and Judge Turpin in Sweeney Todd, Reagan and Goneril in King Lear, and so on-- one of the rivals is destroyed, literally or spiritually, by the other (though in some comedies, rivals become friends again, like Lysander and Demetrius in A Midsummer Night's Dream).
OPPOSITES: While conflict between characters in drama can make for some richly developed, real-life characters, not every character gets this kind of treatment. Novels are multiple-hour affairs and can dive into the nuances of every character. Unfortunately, dramas have live audiences who can only sit for so long, meaning most films and plays are under three hours (even television, which has 22-hour long seasons, builds in weekly episode breaks). This means dramas have to use other means to convey character details. One way is by making everything a character wears or holds associated with his or her personality (a term called Thing Theory, coined by philosopher Martin Heidegger). Another way is by reducing some characters down to stock characters with very basic traits and motivations. Stock characters began in Italian commedia del'arte, where every play had a similar clown character, old man character, hero character, and damsel character. Note that these are not archetypes: stock characters do not represent a broader truth or ideal, but say to the audience this character only cares about X. Many musicals uses stock characters in the form of the chorus, who pop up as soldiers or citizens or politicians when someone outside the main set of characters needs to provide a reaction.
SEXUAL POLITCS AND HUMOR: In narrative, characters primarily address other characters. Occasionally, they will address someone who is not physically present, such as when characters pray, write letters, or have hypothetical or imaginary conversations. This is a device called apostrophe. While not often used in literature, apostrophe is common in drama, as it allows the characters to communicate directly to the audience. A character's speech directed to the audience and no one else is called a soliloquy. Apostrophe is important in drama, as it lets the audience know the character's private thoughts and feelings that they don't want other characters to know. In Hamilton, the songs "Satisfied," "Wait for It," "Hurricane," and "I Know Him," among others, use apostrophe.
PLANTS: Rivals are two people who come from a similar station in life, have similar traits, and seek the same objective; rivals even start out as friends and partners. However, each rival has a different motivation, or reason they want to reach the objective. Take Elphaba and Galinda's rivalry in their studies at Shiz in Wicked: Galinda is after the notoriety and popularity of studying with the Wizard, while Elphaba wants to study with the Wizard to prevent the animal abuses in Oz. Often, since rivals are after the same objective, they turn from friends to enemies. In most cases-- Elphaba and Galinda, Saliere and Mozart in Amadeus, Sweeney Todd and Judge Turpin in Sweeney Todd, Reagan and Goneril in King Lear, and so on-- one of the rivals is destroyed, literally or spiritually, by the other (though in some comedies, rivals become friends again, like Lysander and Demetrius in A Midsummer Night's Dream).
BIRDS: While conflict between characters in drama can make for some richly developed, real-life characters, not every character gets this kind of treatment. Novels are multiple-hour affairs and can dive into the nuances of every character. Unfortunately, dramas have live audiences who can only sit for so long, meaning most films and plays are under three hours (even television, which has 22-hour long seasons, builds in weekly episode breaks). This means dramas have to use other means to convey character details. One way is by making everything a character wears or holds associated with his or her personality (a term called Thing Theory, coined by philosopher Martin Heidegger). Another way is by reducing some characters down to stock characters with very basic traits and motivations. Stock characters began in Italian commedia del'arte, where every play had a similar clown character, old man character, hero character, and damsel character. Note that these are not archetypes: stock characters do not represent a broader truth or ideal, but say to the audience this character only cares about X. Many musicals uses stock characters in the form of the chorus, who pop up as soldiers or citizens or politicians when someone outside the main set of characters needs to provide a reaction.
SAILING: In narrative, characters primarily address other characters. Occasionally, they will address someone who is not physically present, such as when characters pray, write letters, or have hypothetical or imaginary conversations. This is a device called apostrophe. While not often used in literature, apostrophe is common in drama, as it allows the characters to communicate directly to the audience. A character's speech directed to the audience and no one else is called a soliloquy. Apostrophe is important in drama, as it lets the audience know the character's private thoughts and feelings that they don't want other characters to know. In Hamilton, the songs "Satisfied," "Wait for It," "Hurricane," and "I Know Him," among others, use apostrophe.
DISGUISE: Rivals are two people who come from a similar station in life, have similar traits, and seek the same objective; rivals even start out as friends and partners. However, each rival has a different motivation, or reason they want to reach the objective. Take Elphaba and Galinda's rivalry in their studies at Shiz in Wicked: Galinda is after the notoriety and popularity of studying with the Wizard, while Elphaba wants to study with the Wizard to prevent the animal abuses in Oz. Often, since rivals are after the same objective, they turn from friends to enemies. In most cases-- Elphaba and Galinda, Saliere and Mozart in Amadeus, Sweeney Todd and Judge Turpin in Sweeney Todd, Reagan and Goneril in King Lear, and so on-- one of the rivals is destroyed, literally or spiritually, by the other (though in some comedies, rivals become friends again, like Lysander and Demetrius in A Midsummer Night's Dream).
ANTIQUITY: Rivals are two people who come from a similar station in life, have similar traits, and seek the same objective; rivals even start out as friends and partners. However, each rival has a different motivation, or reason they want to reach the objective. Take Elphaba and Galinda's rivalry in their studies at Shiz in Wicked: Galinda is after the notoriety and popularity of studying with the Wizard, while Elphaba wants to study with the Wizard to prevent the animal abuses in Oz. Often, since rivals are after the same objective, they turn from friends to enemies. In most cases-- Elphaba and Galinda, Saliere and Mozart in Amadeus, Sweeney Todd and Judge Turpin in Sweeney Todd, Reagan and Goneril in King Lear, and so on-- one of the rivals is destroyed, literally or spiritually, by the other (though in some comedies, rivals become friends again, like Lysander and Demetrius in A Midsummer Night's Dream).
OPPOSITES: While conflict between characters in drama can make for some richly developed, real-life characters, not every character gets this kind of treatment. Novels are multiple-hour affairs and can dive into the nuances of every character. Unfortunately, dramas have live audiences who can only sit for so long, meaning most films and plays are under three hours (even television, which has 22-hour long seasons, builds in weekly episode breaks). This means dramas have to use other means to convey character details. One way is by making everything a character wears or holds associated with his or her personality (a term called Thing Theory, coined by philosopher Martin Heidegger). Another way is by reducing some characters down to stock characters with very basic traits and motivations. Stock characters began in Italian commedia del'arte, where every play had a similar clown character, old man character, hero character, and damsel character. Note that these are not archetypes: stock characters do not represent a broader truth or ideal, but say to the audience this character only cares about X. Many musicals uses stock characters in the form of the chorus, who pop up as soldiers or citizens or politicians when someone outside the main set of characters needs to provide a reaction.
SEXUAL POLITCS AND HUMOR: In narrative, characters primarily address other characters. Occasionally, they will address someone who is not physically present, such as when characters pray, write letters, or have hypothetical or imaginary conversations. This is a device called apostrophe. While not often used in literature, apostrophe is common in drama, as it allows the characters to communicate directly to the audience. A character's speech directed to the audience and no one else is called a soliloquy. Apostrophe is important in drama, as it lets the audience know the character's private thoughts and feelings that they don't want other characters to know. In Hamilton, the songs "Satisfied," "Wait for It," "Hurricane," and "I Know Him," among others, use apostrophe.
Reading Shakespeare's Plays
First, who are the characters? What are their motivations? How are characters and their relationships established? Who are the stock characters?
Next, describe the structure of the story. What takes the characters out of stasis? How does the story use dramatic irony? How does the play conform to genre tropes and story structure? How does it break from these conventions? What are the most memorable scenes? How do the characters return to stasis?
Look at the theme of the work. How do plot actions and character decisions support the theme?
Next, discuss style. What is the tone of the film, and how does the way each character sounds reflect this attitude? How is the script arranged: does it use a lot of apostrophe, monologues, or quick dialogue?. What is the diction of the characters like and what does it say about them? Look at the stage direction-- is there a lot of action and how is it described?
Finally, critique the medium. Why did the author choose to make a drama to tell his or her story? How is the story told differently than it would be as regular prose? Was making this story a drama an effective choice?
Next, describe the structure of the story. What takes the characters out of stasis? How does the story use dramatic irony? How does the play conform to genre tropes and story structure? How does it break from these conventions? What are the most memorable scenes? How do the characters return to stasis?
Look at the theme of the work. How do plot actions and character decisions support the theme?
Next, discuss style. What is the tone of the film, and how does the way each character sounds reflect this attitude? How is the script arranged: does it use a lot of apostrophe, monologues, or quick dialogue?. What is the diction of the characters like and what does it say about them? Look at the stage direction-- is there a lot of action and how is it described?
Finally, critique the medium. Why did the author choose to make a drama to tell his or her story? How is the story told differently than it would be as regular prose? Was making this story a drama an effective choice?
Writing about Shakespeare
First is still the characters and their motivations, but also describe how characters and their relationships are established visually-- through use of costuming, stature, accent, and other choices. How do the actors portray each character? Do these portrayals build chemistry (believable relationships) or do they fall flat?
Next, describe the structure of the story in the same way as if reading a play.
When analyzing the theme of the play, consider if any visuals or character decisions were made to support the theme. For example, RENT portrays the theme that true connection "in an isolated age" only comes from opening yourself up to another person. This could be supported by giving more open characters (Angel, Tom, Maureen, and Mimi) unzipped coats and more closed off characters (Roger, Mark, Joanne, and Benny) buttoned or zipped coats. This could also be supported by the lighting: the stage could have broader, diffused lighting when characters are making connections and narrow, hard lighting when they are isolated.
Next, discuss style. How does the lighting and pacing reflect and enhance the tone of the piece? As far as imagery, describe the style of set and costumes, use of color, and the way actors interact with the audience and their environment. Describe the use of sound: is there background music or do the actors sing? How does the play use blackout and scene changes to move the story along?
Finally, critique the choices of the production. Did what you saw match the themes of the script or was it bizarre? Were you able to see and hear everything? Did the play hold your interest the entire time?
Next, describe the structure of the story in the same way as if reading a play.
When analyzing the theme of the play, consider if any visuals or character decisions were made to support the theme. For example, RENT portrays the theme that true connection "in an isolated age" only comes from opening yourself up to another person. This could be supported by giving more open characters (Angel, Tom, Maureen, and Mimi) unzipped coats and more closed off characters (Roger, Mark, Joanne, and Benny) buttoned or zipped coats. This could also be supported by the lighting: the stage could have broader, diffused lighting when characters are making connections and narrow, hard lighting when they are isolated.
Next, discuss style. How does the lighting and pacing reflect and enhance the tone of the piece? As far as imagery, describe the style of set and costumes, use of color, and the way actors interact with the audience and their environment. Describe the use of sound: is there background music or do the actors sing? How does the play use blackout and scene changes to move the story along?
Finally, critique the choices of the production. Did what you saw match the themes of the script or was it bizarre? Were you able to see and hear everything? Did the play hold your interest the entire time?
Quoting Shakespeare (is Weird)
For plays written in verse, cite lines like poetry. For all others, treat like prose. For monologues of over for lines and dialogue, use a block quote. Write character names in all caps, followed by a colon, followed by a line. If significant action happens in the selection, describe it using brackets on its own line. Remember to distinguish between a character's inner narration and dialogue.
ORLANDO: Then love me, Rosalind.
ROSALIND: Yes, faith, will I, Fridays and Saturdays, and all.
ORLANDO: And wilt thou have me?
ROSALIND: Ay, and twenty such.
ORLANDO: What sayest thou?
ROSALIND: Are you not good?
ORLANDO: I hope so. (AYL IV.i.1893-1899)
As far as in-text citation, cite the name of the drama and page UNLESS citing Shakespeare and other classic play written in verse. For these, cite the act, scene, and line numbers; furthermore, Shakespeare uses a system of play abbreviations for in-text citation if you are citing from multiple of his plays in one work. Play citations are exactly like book citations (see bottom). Live performances of plays, however, are a bit different. For these, list the playwright, name of the play in italics, director, production company name with the city and state, the date of performance, and the words "Live show."
Ex: Simon, Neil. Rumors, directed by Erin Allen. Skyline High School (Longmont, CO), 5 November 2005. Live Show.
Ex: Simon, Neil. Rumors, directed by Erin Allen. Skyline High School (Longmont, CO), 5 November 2005. Live Show.