"English? Who needs that? I'm never going to England."
Chances are you've heard of The Simpsons. Since 1989, this cartoon by Matt Groening has irreverently mocked popular culture and critiqued American values. But how did this show become not just iconic but the longest-running scripted series in television history? While there is much to analyze concerning the characters and writing of The Simpsons, most scholars believe a large part of their staying power comes from the fact that The Simpsons constantly refers to stories, artworks, films, events, and music in the popular culture . This bridge the show makes between itself and other media is called intertextuality, a term for how a text connects to another text.
Note that intertextuality is about inspiration, not categorization. The Simpsons goes beyond the casual reference to other comedies-- they connect to tragedies, romances, westerns, war films, and even (treehouses of) horror. Though we group texts by their genre, their structure, literary movement, and whether they are fiction or nonfiction, this usually happens after the text is published, while intertextuality is intentionally done by the author while writing. There are also certain basics in all writing are grounded in connecting texts but are not necessarily artistic. For example, the direct quotation: if one directly quotes from a source text, then that text obviously has a connection to the work. Same with theme and archetypes--these are universal concepts meaning they cannot be avoided when writing a work. While some authors work to develop creative versions of themes and archetypes, these still exist without the author's input. Intertextuality is different, as it is both creative and intentional on the part of the author. Intertextuality also connects to a specific text, not a general genre, movement, or thematic idea. This is about the author making connections, not us connecting after the fact.
Here are the different methods an author can use to create intertextuality.
Note that intertextuality is about inspiration, not categorization. The Simpsons goes beyond the casual reference to other comedies-- they connect to tragedies, romances, westerns, war films, and even (treehouses of) horror. Though we group texts by their genre, their structure, literary movement, and whether they are fiction or nonfiction, this usually happens after the text is published, while intertextuality is intentionally done by the author while writing. There are also certain basics in all writing are grounded in connecting texts but are not necessarily artistic. For example, the direct quotation: if one directly quotes from a source text, then that text obviously has a connection to the work. Same with theme and archetypes--these are universal concepts meaning they cannot be avoided when writing a work. While some authors work to develop creative versions of themes and archetypes, these still exist without the author's input. Intertextuality is different, as it is both creative and intentional on the part of the author. Intertextuality also connects to a specific text, not a general genre, movement, or thematic idea. This is about the author making connections, not us connecting after the fact.
Here are the different methods an author can use to create intertextuality.
Allusions and Homages
An allusion is a single reference to a well-known text or character. It's a standalone reference, sometimes called an "Easter Egg," that does not influence the plot at all but aids in character description and development. Here is a screenshot with dialogue from an episode of The Simpsons called "A Milhouse Divided." Homer makes a clear reference to Scooby Doo, yet this is a one-off joke. The plot is about Milhouse's parents getting divorced, and Scooby Doo is never referenced again.
Think of allusions as a shortcut for writers. By using a well-known references that readers will know, the allusion can help make an author's point easier and quicker to understand by building on the existing knowledge and (ideally) positive feeling about the referenced work. Allusions are common in dialogue, descriptions, and even titles (even the title of the episode in the paragraph above is an allusion to the phrase "a house divided cannot stand"). |
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Another allusion occurs when Bart is looking for a way to revenge prank Homer on April Fool's Day, and Homer says aloud, “Ah, beer, my one weakness. My Achilles' heel, if you will.” This is an allusion to the story of Achilles, whose mother was dipped him into the Styx as a baby, granting him invulnerability everywhere except his heel, where his mother held onto him so he wouldn't float away.
Modern memes work off the idea of allusion, using an image or clip to draw parallels between one context and another, and The Simpsons have launched 1,000 memes. Whether it's the use of Homer disappearing into the bushes to escape an awkward encounter or Lisa lecturing to push a bold truth, the popularity of The Simpsons has made them ripe for allusion (in the same way that The Bible, Shakespeare, and Greek myths were a century ago). |
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When a bunch of similar allusions come together and carry through an entire scene, this is called an homage. An homage shows respect to another artist through continual use of allusion, yet the story is still original and not an adaptation of the original plot or text. Here is an homage The Simpsons created to the opening scene of Spielberg's Raiders of the Lost Ark.
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Translations, abridgments, and expansions
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A translation is the rewriting of a text as accurately as possible into a different language. While this seems like a straightforward process, there is actually a lot of artistry that goes into translation, as some words have no equal in another language. Cuban-American author Achy Obejas perhaps puts this best in her novel Days of Awe, where the main character discusses her father's frustration with translating heaven:
"He would tell me about his frustrations with heaven, how he searched in vain for a Spanish equivalent. 'The dictionary says cielo, but that's sky,' he explained. 'I looked up paradise--paraiso--I looked up nirvana, Valhalla, Eden. But still the closest thing was cielo, as if, in Spanish, the enigma of the sky could never be penetrated, as if the stars were just the stars, the moon just a moon.' Over the years, he would compile a catalog of words that refused to convert from one language to the other. Heaven was at the top of his list in stubborn English; in Spanish, it was escampar, which is what happens when it stops raining" (11).
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Another problem with accuracy is whether to be accurate to the words or style of the original work. For example, several poets over the centuries have struggled to translate Dante Alighieri's Divine Comedy into English not because words have no English equivalents, but because the structure of the original is lost. The original epic is a terza rima, written in rhyming interlocking triplets. Some translators, like Robert Pinsky, focus on keeping the poetic structure and not the exact wording, while other try to keep the wording and eliminate the style.
Additionally, an abridgment is where a version of the original text is shortened, either for printing purposes or purposes of education. The most popular abridged works in the United States come from Reader's Digest and often have entire character and scenes cut out in order to get to the main points of the story. In a world of tl;dr, abridgments are one of the fastest growing literary industries. Counter to this are expansions, sequels or prequels that pick up on threads from the story and make the story longer. Most common in the form of fan fiction, these works are usually not copyrightable or considered "canon" unless the original author or copyright holder approves them.
Pastiche
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A pastiche is a text that imitates the style of another text or artist. All the elements of style, from tone to diction, mirror a previous work. This is different from other adaptations as it is not about reusing plot events, but reuses style--as if a different author sat down to write the story. The text stands independently on its own, but can be understood more deeply when the reader knows what the story or style is imitating. Here is a pastiche of The Simpsons done in the style of Academy Award nominated animator Sylvain Chomet. Notice the characters and relationships are the same while the style is completely different.
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Adaptation
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There are three types of adaptations: media adaptations, transformative adaptations, and parody. A media adaptation is where the text of one medium (writing, song, art, etc) is turned into another medium directly. This is pretty straightforward: book becoming a movie, a film becoming a play, etc. There may be some characterization or lines that are different but the whole work is pretty much unchanged. Here is a media adaptation The Simpsons made to Poe's "The Raven."
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A transformative adaptation takes the original story but makes sweeping changes-- the text is rewritten with slightly different characters, setting, and style but stays true to the themes, story, and purpose of the original work. For example, Pride and Prejudice has film adaptations that stick exactly to the source material, and it has film adaptations such as the Lizzie Bennett Diaries (which set the story in a modern tech firm) and Pride and Prejudice and Zombies (which, obviously, add zombies to the story). Most modern adaptations are transformative, for even turning a play into a musical alters the pacing of the story and which characters are important. Here is a Simpsonian version of The Planet of the Apes made into a campy musical.
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Parody
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A parody is an adaptation that makes fun of or comments on another text, artist, style, or real world person or event. A parody is always intended to mock a text, and a reader must know the original to understand the parody, as the parody duplicates events or characters from the original, but to an absurd degree. Sometimes a parody is also an homage, when the author honors something they love by ridiculing it. Parodies, as a form of adaptation, stick to the original characters or events but twist them to an absurd degree. The Simpsons are well known for their parodies, usually featured in their "Treehouse of Horror" series. Parodies done include King Kong, Strangers on a Train, The Odyssey, and, as in this example, The Shining.
Note that parodies are not satires: a satire uses humor to expose and criticize people's stupidity or vices. Satire has an underlying message, while a parody is only done for fun. The Simpsons as a whole is a satire of the American "nuclear family" idealized in the 1950s and 1960s. Homer and Marge Simpsons have 2.5 children, live in the suburbs, go to church on Sundays, and participate in the middle class lifestyle in a variety of ways, but the show's use of humor and exaggeration reveals the dysfunction at the heart of this American Dream. For instance, when Homer is trying to impress and befriend a coworker who dislikes him, Homer reveals that his success comes more from luck and happenstance rather than hard work and is undeserved--the speech by Frank Grimes is a sharp criticism that gets to the heart of The Simpsons as a satire. |
The Simpsons Episodes Referenced
"Bart's Friend Falls in Love" The Simpsons, created by Matt Groening, season 3, episode 23. 20th Century Fox, 1992.
"Diggs." The Simpsons, created by Matt Groening, season 25, episode 12. 20th Century Fox, 2014.
"A Fish Called Selma." The Simpsons, created by Matt Groening, season 7, episode 19. 20th Century Fox, 1996.
"Homer's Enemy." The Simpsons, created by Matt Groening, season 8, episode 23. 20th Century Fox, 1997.
"In Marge We Trust." The Simpsons, created by Matt Groening, season 8, episode 22. 20th Century Fox, 1997.
"So It's Come to This: A Simpsons Clip Show." The Simpsons, created by Matt Groening, season 4, episode 18. 20th Century Fox, 1993.
"The Springfield Connection." The Simpsons, created by Matt Groening, season 6, episode 23. 20th Century Fox, 1995.
"Treehouse of Horror." The Simpsons, created by Matt Groening, season 2, episode 3. 20th Century Fox, 1990.
"Treehouse of Horror V." The Simpsons, created by Matt Groening, season 6, episode 5. 20th Century Fox, 1994.
"The Way We Was." The Simpsons, created by Matt Groening, season 2, episode 12. 20th Century Fox, 1991.
"Bart's Friend Falls in Love" The Simpsons, created by Matt Groening, season 3, episode 23. 20th Century Fox, 1992.
"Diggs." The Simpsons, created by Matt Groening, season 25, episode 12. 20th Century Fox, 2014.
"A Fish Called Selma." The Simpsons, created by Matt Groening, season 7, episode 19. 20th Century Fox, 1996.
"Homer's Enemy." The Simpsons, created by Matt Groening, season 8, episode 23. 20th Century Fox, 1997.
"In Marge We Trust." The Simpsons, created by Matt Groening, season 8, episode 22. 20th Century Fox, 1997.
"So It's Come to This: A Simpsons Clip Show." The Simpsons, created by Matt Groening, season 4, episode 18. 20th Century Fox, 1993.
"The Springfield Connection." The Simpsons, created by Matt Groening, season 6, episode 23. 20th Century Fox, 1995.
"Treehouse of Horror." The Simpsons, created by Matt Groening, season 2, episode 3. 20th Century Fox, 1990.
"Treehouse of Horror V." The Simpsons, created by Matt Groening, season 6, episode 5. 20th Century Fox, 1994.
"The Way We Was." The Simpsons, created by Matt Groening, season 2, episode 12. 20th Century Fox, 1991.