No matter the language, words can be grouped together into different parts of speech based on how they function in the sentence. Some words describe the world around us: what we see, how we act, and the qualities of those things and actions. These words are expressive parts of speech and include nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. As the world around us is constantly changing, we constantly come up with new words (neologisms) to describe it-- thus the number of expressive words in the English language is constantly expanding with these neologisms.
Yet these words are not enough: we also need words that show the relationships between these words, whether physical or conceptual. These are the functional parts of speech. While all languages have the four expressive parts of speech, different languages have different functional parts of speech based upon the rules of their grammar. French and Spanish have nine parts of speech, Arabic has three with ten subcategories, and Chinese has thirteen. English has eight parts of speech: in addition to the expressive parts of speech (nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs), we have four functional parts of speech: pronouns, conjunctions, prepositions, and interjections. For the sake of consistency, languages avoid added any functional words; English, for example, hasn't had a new pronoun in over 500 years and has indeed dropped several pronouns over time (thy, thine, thou).
Yet these words are not enough: we also need words that show the relationships between these words, whether physical or conceptual. These are the functional parts of speech. While all languages have the four expressive parts of speech, different languages have different functional parts of speech based upon the rules of their grammar. French and Spanish have nine parts of speech, Arabic has three with ten subcategories, and Chinese has thirteen. English has eight parts of speech: in addition to the expressive parts of speech (nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs), we have four functional parts of speech: pronouns, conjunctions, prepositions, and interjections. For the sake of consistency, languages avoid added any functional words; English, for example, hasn't had a new pronoun in over 500 years and has indeed dropped several pronouns over time (thy, thine, thou).
NOUN
A noun is a person, place, object, or concept (ideas, states, and qualities).
- PEOPLE: man, girl, bro, cheerleader, loser, Christopher Walken, Mrs. Robinson
- PLACES: house, park, cemetery, Grand Canyon, Lichtenstein
- OBJECTS: book, dog, gremlin, chair, Facebook, Hamlet
- CONCEPTS: love, thought, war, time, Thursday, World War I
ALL CLAUSES REQUIRE A NOUN. Nouns have three qualities: case, title, and number. CASE refers to if a noun is the subject of a clause, the object of a phrase or clause, or shows possessive ownership. TITLE refers to if a noun has a specific and proper title or is common and unspecific. NUMBER refers to the plurality of nouns: how to count them (if they can be counted) and how to express that there's more than one. Some specific nouns (brother, daughter, girl, etc) also show gender.
VERBS
A verb is an action, occurrence, or state of existence.
An action is any act that can be performed. An occurrence is an act over which no one can control (e.g., became, happens, transpired). A state of existence is a definition on if an how a subject is real, imaginary, alive, or dead. There are two types of state of existence verbs: linking verbs (which reveal how an object exists) and helping (or auxiliary) verbs (which show condition or aspect).
ALL CLAUSES MUST HAVE AN ACTION OR LINKING VERB. As English is an action-oriented language, verbs are the most complex part of speech. Verbs demonstrate TENSE (when they occur), ASPECT (how long they occur), VALENCY (how many arguments it can take), and MOOD (tonal expression). Some verbs called verbals can also act as other parts of speech, and verbs must show agreement with a subject in a clause. The verb also determines whether a se ntence is active or passive and what sort of complements a subject may take.
- ACTION VERB: run, walk, kiss, murder, twirl, eject, see, tickle, tackle, think
- LINKING VERB (COPULA): is, am, are, was, were, be, been, being, feel, smell, taste, look, remain, appear
- HELPING VERB: can, could, may, might, must, will, shall, should, would, do, does, did, has
ALL CLAUSES MUST HAVE AN ACTION OR LINKING VERB. As English is an action-oriented language, verbs are the most complex part of speech. Verbs demonstrate TENSE (when they occur), ASPECT (how long they occur), VALENCY (how many arguments it can take), and MOOD (tonal expression). Some verbs called verbals can also act as other parts of speech, and verbs must show agreement with a subject in a clause. The verb also determines whether a se ntence is active or passive and what sort of complements a subject may take.
ADJECTIVES & ADVERBS
Adjectives modify nouns.
Adverbs modify verbs, adjective, and other adverbs.
Adjectives and adverbs are modifiers, meaning that they describe or alter other parts of speech by answering questions about those words. Adjectives modify nouns and answer how much/many, which one, what kind, and whose?, and include some types of nouns and prounouns that act as modifiers:
Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs, and answer where, when, why, how, and to what extent or degree? While adverbs commonly end in -ly, the four most commonly used adverbs do not: NOT, NEVER, JUST, and VERY.
Several adjectives and adverbs also show or imply comparison to other subjects. These are either comparative modifiers (better, worse, darker, brighter) or superlative modifiers (best, worst, darkest, brightest), and take on specific suffixes.
- How much/many?: five, several, few, less, ninety-two, most, only...
- Which one? (determiners): articles (a, an, the) and demonstrative pronouns (this, that, these, those)
- What kind?: big, shiny, hirsute, purple, maniacal, greater, American...
- Whose?: answered using clauses or possessive nouns and pronouns (Bill's, her...)
Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs, and answer where, when, why, how, and to what extent or degree? While adverbs commonly end in -ly, the four most commonly used adverbs do not: NOT, NEVER, JUST, and VERY.
- Where?: here, there, under the table
- When?: yesterday, now, then, in a couple days
- Why?: only answered using phrases and clauses (because he likes her, since it's due tomorrow)
- How?: suddenly, quickly, slowly, definitely, completely
- To what extent/degree?: very, too, almost, also, only, enough, so, quite
Several adjectives and adverbs also show or imply comparison to other subjects. These are either comparative modifiers (better, worse, darker, brighter) or superlative modifiers (best, worst, darkest, brightest), and take on specific suffixes.
PRONOUNS
A pronoun stands in for a known noun.
Language should communicate ideas is a quick and clear way. If we had only nouns to work with, we would be unable to do this, as we would have to say everyone and everything's full name each time we referred to it. Thus, we have pronouns to clean up our language. There are several different types of pronouns:
PERSONAL PRONOUNS: take the place of specific people or objects and show perspective
INDEFINATE PRONOUNS: take the place of unknown people or items
REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS: self-referential
DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS: determine which noun is being discussed
INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS: start questions
RELATIVE PRONOUNS: start a relative clause
Though there are many types of pronouns that are used in different ways, there is one idea that all must follow: they are standing in and this represent a previously stated noun, which is called an antecedent. If a paragraph started with, "She walked into the room, lip quivering. She saw him, the boy she dreamt of every night. She wondered if she would ever talk to her, or if he even knew she was alive. She decided that she would be courageous and sit by him today." We have no idea who she or he is: we need an antecedent noun to know who we are talking about. Even indefinite pronouns have an antecedent concept: Someone in this room stuck gum to my desk implies that the subject is not specifically known but is a member of the group in the room.
PERSONAL PRONOUNS: take the place of specific people or objects and show perspective
INDEFINATE PRONOUNS: take the place of unknown people or items
REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS: self-referential
DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS: determine which noun is being discussed
INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS: start questions
RELATIVE PRONOUNS: start a relative clause
Though there are many types of pronouns that are used in different ways, there is one idea that all must follow: they are standing in and this represent a previously stated noun, which is called an antecedent. If a paragraph started with, "She walked into the room, lip quivering. She saw him, the boy she dreamt of every night. She wondered if she would ever talk to her, or if he even knew she was alive. She decided that she would be courageous and sit by him today." We have no idea who she or he is: we need an antecedent noun to know who we are talking about. Even indefinite pronouns have an antecedent concept: Someone in this room stuck gum to my desk implies that the subject is not specifically known but is a member of the group in the room.
CONJUNCTIONS
A conjunction joins words, phrases, or clauses.
Conjunctions are like language glue: they connect ideas on the level of words, phrases, and clauses.
WORD LEVEL: Bill and Ted
PHRASE LEVEL: You must either do the work or take the F.
CLAUSE LEVEL: I love to dance, but Kira's is too self-conscious to join me.
Conjunctions are either coordinating conjunctions, which join equal items (two names, two verbs with objects, two independent clauses, etc) or subordinating conjunctions, which join unequal items (a dependent and independent clause). There are seven coordinating conjunctions, which form the acronym FANBOYS: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so. Occasionally, a couple of these coordinating conjunctions team up with adverbs to form correlative conjunctions (either/or, neither/nor, both/and, not only/but also). Subordinating conjunctions are adverbs or prepositions that come at the front of a dependent clause and connect it to an independent clause (because, since, although, after...).
So conjunctions can join words, phrases, and clauses--can they connect sentences? A special type of conjunction called a conjunctive adverb does just that: conjunctive adverbs are inserted into a second sentence to show a relationship to the first sentence.
WORD LEVEL: Bill and Ted
PHRASE LEVEL: You must either do the work or take the F.
CLAUSE LEVEL: I love to dance, but Kira's is too self-conscious to join me.
Conjunctions are either coordinating conjunctions, which join equal items (two names, two verbs with objects, two independent clauses, etc) or subordinating conjunctions, which join unequal items (a dependent and independent clause). There are seven coordinating conjunctions, which form the acronym FANBOYS: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so. Occasionally, a couple of these coordinating conjunctions team up with adverbs to form correlative conjunctions (either/or, neither/nor, both/and, not only/but also). Subordinating conjunctions are adverbs or prepositions that come at the front of a dependent clause and connect it to an independent clause (because, since, although, after...).
So conjunctions can join words, phrases, and clauses--can they connect sentences? A special type of conjunction called a conjunctive adverb does just that: conjunctive adverbs are inserted into a second sentence to show a relationship to the first sentence.
Studies show that this trend is escalating. Additionally, the scientific community has increased research on the topic.
The French declared it law in 1750. That law, however, would only last 23 years.
Finally, the result demonstrate our hypothesis was correct. We must therefore stop adding this to the water.
The French declared it law in 1750. That law, however, would only last 23 years.
Finally, the result demonstrate our hypothesis was correct. We must therefore stop adding this to the water.
If these conjunctive adverbs look familiar, they should. They are commonly referred to as transition words.
PREPOSITIONS
A preposition shows a physical relationship between objects.
All languages have words that show where objects are in proximity to one another. These are referred to as positional parts of speech and come in three types: prepositions, where the positional word comes before the object; postpositions, where the positional word comes after the object; and adpositions, where the positional word comes in the middle of the phrase (only found in Asian languages). ENGLISH ONLY USES PREPOSITIONS.
To determine what words can be prepositional, think about a ball and a box:
To determine what words can be prepositional, think about a ball and a box:
Prepositions can be single words but can also be phrasal, as in the examples of expect for, in spite of, and next to. They can also come at the end of an action verb to form an informal phrasal verb like sat down, threw up, coming up, or messing around (see the verbs page). Unless part of a phrasal verb, prepositions always start a prepositional phrase, which starts with a preposition and ends with an object (noun or pronoun). These phrases are adjectival or adverbial in nature, depending on which modifying question they answer (see the modifiers page for more).
Practical question: Can I end a sentence with a preposition?
Sometimes. The literal definition of a preposition is that it is before (pre) a word to show its relationship (position), so the hard and fast rule for centuries has been that sentences cannot end with a preposition. However, modern grammar has allowed for some practical exceptions to this rule:
1) If the preposition is actually part of the phrasal verb: I think I'm going to throw up.
2) If the sentence is a question with the object of the preposition earlier in the sentence: What are you waiting for?
3) When a writer wants to shift a verb's placement in the sentence to create emphasis: We know which door the prize is behind.
INTERJECTIONS
An interjection shows a sudden outburst that stands outside a sentence.
Interjections are the strangest part of speech. Interjections are often phrasal instead of singular and can include almost any word. Interjections can show high emotion, low emotion, or no emotion. The only quality that defines an interjection is, while tangentially related to a sentence, it has no grammatical connection to a sentence. Appearing often at the beginning or end of a sentence, interjections are outbursts that interject a quick idea. Here are some examples:
What? We spent an hour on that sketch and you're starting over?
Oh, I didn't know you two were dating.
I just don't think you should it, okay?
She's dating Ryan now? That two-timing skank!
Oh, I didn't know you two were dating.
I just don't think you should it, okay?
She's dating Ryan now? That two-timing skank!
Some interjections called nouns of direct address are useful in clarifying who a speaker is talking to by inserting their name somewhere in the sentence. Again, the name has no grammatical connection.
Jane, this is the last time I bail you out.
Wherefore art thou, Romeo?
I can't believe it, Frank, what they're doing to the company!
Wherefore art thou, Romeo?
I can't believe it, Frank, what they're doing to the company!
Notice that interjections are always offset from the rest of the sentence by a common if they don't convey emotion and by an exclamation point if they do. This reinforces the idea that interjections are separate from the sentence, and even appear this way in sentence diagrams.