Film refers to any drama that is expressed in a recorded media, and includes television, documentaries, animation, and web video. Film is one of the newest types of media, developed in the late 19th century with the invention of the camera. Early films were in black and white and silent until the late 1920s; ever since, film has been a widespread and profitable way to tell a story. Scholars distinguish a true cinematic film as a film primarily developed to have a artistic message; this is converse from a movie, which is a film primarily developed to make a creator profit (think this as the difference between a Ansel Adams photograph in a museum verses a poster of a celebrity). This is not to say movies cannot be high quality or enjoyable, but artistry is secondary by their nature. The true separation between a film and a movie is seen when evaluating the six elements of film: story, acting, mise en scene, cinematography, editing, and sound. A true film uses all of these elements together to move the action forward, while a movie does not. Here are the six elements in depth:
ELEMENT ONE: Story
Storytelling for film is very structured. Unlike novels, where pace can vary and different types of stories develop, films cling to a three act structure to conform to audience expectations and film run times. If an event comes too early or late, the film is said to have pacing problems, and an absent event is called a plot hole, which is a gap in the story logic. Below is a graph of the three-act structure for an average two hour (120 minute) film.
THE HOOK: The film must begin with a hook, a scene with a main character that sets up the genre of film and world the characters inhabit. The hook of The Dark Knight (2008) is The Joker robbing a bank, setting up expectations of a true crime film set in a world of superheroics. The hook of The Good, The Bad, and The Ugly (1967) is a quiet scene of three men slowly entering a saloon, sounds of a fight inside, and Tuco jumping out a window and riding away after killing the men; this sets up expectations of an isolated western focusing around a resourceful outlaw. The hook of Under the Skin (2014) is an impressionistic mix of colors that eventually form an eye, setting up audience expectations that the film will be a sci-fi thriller without very clear answers.
THE INCITING INCIDENT: The normal world of the film and normal life for the characters is interrupted by a new development or change. The inciting incident of Roman Holiday (1953) is when Princess Ann runs away, as it disrupts her normal world. The inciting incident of No Country for Old Men (2007) is when Llewelyn discovers the murdered gang and the money. The inciting incident in Men in Black (1997) is when NYPD officer James Edwards chases down a suspect, discovers he is an alien, and is then given a business card by Agent K.
TURNING POINT 1: After the inciting incident, the protagonist is given a choice: to pursue the new opportunity given to them or to try to go back to normalcy. Of course, the protagonist takes the opportunity (there would be no plot if he or she didn't), whether voluntarily or by force. The protagonist tries to weave the new situation into his or her own life without disruption, but an outside force leads to the first turning point, the change of plans. The first turning point in Star Wars (1976) is when Luke's aunt and uncle are killed, forcing him to accompany Obi-Wan Kenobi. The first turning point of Shrek (2001) is when Shrek discovers he cannot simply get his swamp back from Lord Farquaad, but that he must rescue a princess first. This moment shifts the action from Act I to Act II.
THE INCITING INCIDENT: The normal world of the film and normal life for the characters is interrupted by a new development or change. The inciting incident of Roman Holiday (1953) is when Princess Ann runs away, as it disrupts her normal world. The inciting incident of No Country for Old Men (2007) is when Llewelyn discovers the murdered gang and the money. The inciting incident in Men in Black (1997) is when NYPD officer James Edwards chases down a suspect, discovers he is an alien, and is then given a business card by Agent K.
TURNING POINT 1: After the inciting incident, the protagonist is given a choice: to pursue the new opportunity given to them or to try to go back to normalcy. Of course, the protagonist takes the opportunity (there would be no plot if he or she didn't), whether voluntarily or by force. The protagonist tries to weave the new situation into his or her own life without disruption, but an outside force leads to the first turning point, the change of plans. The first turning point in Star Wars (1976) is when Luke's aunt and uncle are killed, forcing him to accompany Obi-Wan Kenobi. The first turning point of Shrek (2001) is when Shrek discovers he cannot simply get his swamp back from Lord Farquaad, but that he must rescue a princess first. This moment shifts the action from Act I to Act II.
FUN AND GAMES: After the protagonist enters the second act, he or she is immersed in new experiences. These experiences can include traveling to a new place, meeting new people, building new relationships, and learning new skills. This is where Rango becomes the sheriff in Rango (2007) and when Joe and Jerry decide to keep pretending to be women once in Florida in Some Like It Hot (1959). Though termed fun and games, this does not necessarily mean the protagonist is having the fun: this is when Sydney is continually threatened by the killer in Scream (1999) and when Darth Vader blows up Alderaan in Star Wars (1977).
POINT OF NO RETURN: Exactly halfway through the film (usually almost exactly at 60 minute mark) comes the point of no return. Similar to the point of no return in a book, this is where a character crosses a threshold where the fun and games have ended and the stakes are much higher. What causes this is either a major victory or a major defeat. The point of no return in Batman Begins (2005) is the dock scene where Bruce Wayne first defeats criminals as Batman suit--a victory. The point of no return in Jurassic Park (1993) is when Nedry shuts down the park's power and the dinosaurs escape--a defeat. The point of no return in Ride Along (2014) is the scene in the strip club, as it is the first actual crime Ben has faced and results in him getting shot, but also the first time Ben stands up to James--this both a defeat and a victory.
MAJOR SETBACK: After the point of no return, the protagonist is engaged with the antagonistic force directly, with rising stakes and difficulties. Eventually, one of these difficulties overwhelms the protagonist and a major setback occurs. This is usually the loss of a loved one. While this is normally thought of as a death (such as Obi-Wan Kenobi's death in Star Wars), it can be the destruction of a relationship, like when Laney discovers she was a bet in She's All That (1999) or Daniel Hillard being exposed as Mrs. Doubtfire to his ex-wife and losing custody of his kids (Mrs. Doubtfire 1994). The setback can even just be a minor setback: the major setback in Gremlins (1984) is where the car won't start after Billy saves Kate from Dorry's Pub and they have to take shelter in the ruined bank.
DARK NIGHT OF THE SOUL/TURNING POINT TWO: After suffering the loss, characters typically go through a dark night of he soul, which is a period of self-doubt and mourning. After the car stalling scene in Gremlins, Kate tells the story of why she hates Christmas, expressing the personal darkness she's hidden for years. The dark night ends with the second turning point, when the characters renew their hope-- usually when another character has to encourages them to keep going and finish what they've started. For the above setback examples, Leia encourages Luke to keep fighting for the rebellion, Laney's father tells her to go to the prom, the Hillard children expressing their misery to their mother, and Billy and Kate see the gremlins are all in the movie theater and plan to burn them all. This turning point launches the plot into Act III.
POINT OF NO RETURN: Exactly halfway through the film (usually almost exactly at 60 minute mark) comes the point of no return. Similar to the point of no return in a book, this is where a character crosses a threshold where the fun and games have ended and the stakes are much higher. What causes this is either a major victory or a major defeat. The point of no return in Batman Begins (2005) is the dock scene where Bruce Wayne first defeats criminals as Batman suit--a victory. The point of no return in Jurassic Park (1993) is when Nedry shuts down the park's power and the dinosaurs escape--a defeat. The point of no return in Ride Along (2014) is the scene in the strip club, as it is the first actual crime Ben has faced and results in him getting shot, but also the first time Ben stands up to James--this both a defeat and a victory.
MAJOR SETBACK: After the point of no return, the protagonist is engaged with the antagonistic force directly, with rising stakes and difficulties. Eventually, one of these difficulties overwhelms the protagonist and a major setback occurs. This is usually the loss of a loved one. While this is normally thought of as a death (such as Obi-Wan Kenobi's death in Star Wars), it can be the destruction of a relationship, like when Laney discovers she was a bet in She's All That (1999) or Daniel Hillard being exposed as Mrs. Doubtfire to his ex-wife and losing custody of his kids (Mrs. Doubtfire 1994). The setback can even just be a minor setback: the major setback in Gremlins (1984) is where the car won't start after Billy saves Kate from Dorry's Pub and they have to take shelter in the ruined bank.
DARK NIGHT OF THE SOUL/TURNING POINT TWO: After suffering the loss, characters typically go through a dark night of he soul, which is a period of self-doubt and mourning. After the car stalling scene in Gremlins, Kate tells the story of why she hates Christmas, expressing the personal darkness she's hidden for years. The dark night ends with the second turning point, when the characters renew their hope-- usually when another character has to encourages them to keep going and finish what they've started. For the above setback examples, Leia encourages Luke to keep fighting for the rebellion, Laney's father tells her to go to the prom, the Hillard children expressing their misery to their mother, and Billy and Kate see the gremlins are all in the movie theater and plan to burn them all. This turning point launches the plot into Act III.
ALL OR NOTHING RISK AND CLIMAX: At this point, the characters have renewed faith in themselves and will risk everything to end the antagonistic force once and for all. This is The Man with No Name facing down the bandits in A Fistful of Dollars (1965), Andrew deciding to get back on stage and give himself a drum solo in Whiplash (2014), and Lydia agreeing to marry Betelguese to save the Maitlands in Beetlejuice (1988). In mystery films, this is the scene where the culprit is confronted by the detective. In romances, this is the last-ditch effort to save the relationship. In horror, this is where the protagonist faces down the killer in a battle to death. The character will either win everything or lose everything-- this is called the climax, and revolves around an event happening. The culprit is caught, the villain dies, the lovers kiss, and the day is saved.
AFTERMATH: After the climax, most film show a brief look at the fall out from the events of the climax. This can be a scene that gives the villain, who was victorious in the climax, gets his or her comeuppance, like in Cruel Intentions (1999). Sometimes this scene sets up a new adventure or horror, like the endings of Back to the Future (1985) and A Nightmare on Elm Street (1984). Sometime this is a montage with text describing where each character ends up like in Mallrats (1996), Some films, like the aforementioned Whiplash, just end at the cimax.
AFTERMATH: After the climax, most film show a brief look at the fall out from the events of the climax. This can be a scene that gives the villain, who was victorious in the climax, gets his or her comeuppance, like in Cruel Intentions (1999). Sometimes this scene sets up a new adventure or horror, like the endings of Back to the Future (1985) and A Nightmare on Elm Street (1984). Sometime this is a montage with text describing where each character ends up like in Mallrats (1996), Some films, like the aforementioned Whiplash, just end at the cimax.
ELEMENT TWO: Acting
Acting is simply how the performers portray their roles. The goal of a good actor is to allow their own celebrity status or personality to disappear and make the audience believe they are, in fact, that character. Sometimes, actors don’t express much character or personality at all: this is called wooden acting. The opposite, when an actor goes over the top and becomes too unrealistic, is called ham acting. It is the rare film where a single actor is on their own, so they must interact with other actors and build relationships. Actors who build strong and believable relationships are said to have chemistry. Note that chemistry can describe any relationship: two actors playing father and son can have just as much chemistry as two actors playing lovers or even two actors playing enemies. Conversely, actors without chemistry don't show that they have a relationship or are even listening to the other actor.
ELEMENT THREE: Cinematography
Cinematography is the art of capturing images on film. One aspect of cinematography is exposure, which is a measure of how much light is allowed to be captured on film. Exposure can also be affected by the stock of a film; originally a term for the type of film actually loaded into cameras, stock today refers in general to the quality of the film. Stock can be high definition or hazy and ethereal or even black and white. Cinematographers today usually create these effects using digital filters in post-production. A cinematographer divides the script into a series of shots, or section of film shot from a certain angle. Sometimes a shot is tied to distance from the camera, such as a wide shot (view of the entire scene), a tight shot (view of just one actor or object), and a long shot (where the camera is far from the subject). Sometimes a shot is tied to a movement, such as a pan (moves left or right), a tilt (moves up or down), or a zoom (moves closer to or farther from the subject). Sometimes a shot is tied to angle or depth of focus.
ELEMENT FOUR: Mise en Scene
Mise en scene comes from the French phrase "setting the stage," and describes all the physical visual elements in a film. This includes the set design and its architecture, the costume design, the makeup design, and the use of properties (props), which are any item handled by actors. Lighting is perhaps the most important aspect of mise en scene, as it allows the action to be seen, but also uses lighting quality and shadows to depict time and mood. Great designers spend countless hours making sure each of these elements not only fits the setting of the story and the personality of the characters, but that they all fit together and seem as if they inhabit the same world. One of the best ways to tie all these elements together is color. Visual effects (VFX) are also mise en scene, for even if they are generated with computers or puppets, they still inhabit (at least on screen) the physical space of the actor.
ELEMENT FIVE: Editing
Film editing is the process of arranging shots in order and transitioning between them. Think of editing as grammar for film: just as we expect periods in sentences and paragraph breaks, we expect films to digitally transition often so we don't get bored but smoothly so we forget we're watching a film. Often, scenes of people talking are created with shots of one person's face followed by shots of the other person's face, creating a back-and-forth dialogue. Editors can transition shots using three different types of cuts: with a jump (sudden switch between scenes), a fade (the scene dissolves into black, white, or the next scene), or a wipe (where the next scene moves across the previous one).
ELEMENT SIX: Sound
There are two types of sound in film. Nondiegetic sound refers to sound characters can't hear, like the voice of a narrator or the music in the background of a dramatic scene. Diegetic sound refers to sound coming from a source in the world of the actors: a person whistling, an animal howling, a radio playing, or a glass breaking. Even if the sound happens offscreen, if the characters would be able to hear it, it is diegetic. Besides dialogue, almost all sounds in a film, from footsteps to explosions, is added in post-production by a Foley artist. Foley is the process of recording crisp, clear sound effects in a studio and then adding them to a film. Below is a video that demonstrates the work of a Foley artist.
Analyzing a film
First, who are the characters? What are their motivations and how do we know them? How are characters and their relationships established visually-- through composition and stature? How do the actors portray each character? Do these portrayals build chemistry or do they fall flat?
Next, describe the structure of the story. How do events unfold? Does the story make use of foreshadowing and flashbacks? How does the film conform to genre tropes and story structure? How does it break from these conventions? What are the most memorable scenes? How does the story end, and is this ending successful? Does everything make sense, or is there a leap in the logic of the plot (this is called a plot hole)?
Look at the theme of the film. How do actions and character decisions support the theme of the film? Furthermore, how do the choices in mise en scene and cinematography support the theme? Are there any visual or character archetypes that support the theme? For example, Casablanca uses shadows over Rick's face throughout the movie to support the idea that his true patriotic intentions are being shut out, adding to the theme that a person cannot hide from their inner nature.
Next, discuss style. What is the tone of the film, and how does the lighting and pacing reflect this attitude? As far as imagery, describe the style of set and costumes, use of color and filters, and any special visual effects. Describe the use of diegetic sound versus nondiegetic sound: what type of music is used and how does it support the mood or the story? How does the film use editing to move the story along: does it use many cuts, long or wide shots, or does it use framing devices?
Finally, critique the medium. Why did the author choose to make a film to tell his or her story? How is the story told differently than it would be as regular prose? Was making this story a film an effective choice?
Next, describe the structure of the story. How do events unfold? Does the story make use of foreshadowing and flashbacks? How does the film conform to genre tropes and story structure? How does it break from these conventions? What are the most memorable scenes? How does the story end, and is this ending successful? Does everything make sense, or is there a leap in the logic of the plot (this is called a plot hole)?
Look at the theme of the film. How do actions and character decisions support the theme of the film? Furthermore, how do the choices in mise en scene and cinematography support the theme? Are there any visual or character archetypes that support the theme? For example, Casablanca uses shadows over Rick's face throughout the movie to support the idea that his true patriotic intentions are being shut out, adding to the theme that a person cannot hide from their inner nature.
Next, discuss style. What is the tone of the film, and how does the lighting and pacing reflect this attitude? As far as imagery, describe the style of set and costumes, use of color and filters, and any special visual effects. Describe the use of diegetic sound versus nondiegetic sound: what type of music is used and how does it support the mood or the story? How does the film use editing to move the story along: does it use many cuts, long or wide shots, or does it use framing devices?
Finally, critique the medium. Why did the author choose to make a film to tell his or her story? How is the story told differently than it would be as regular prose? Was making this story a film an effective choice?
How to quote and cite a film
Film is a subcategory of drama, so cite it exactly as you world drama. For monologues of over for lines and dialogue, use a block quote. Write character names in all caps, followed by a colon, followed by a line. If significant action happens in the selection, describe it using brackets on its own line. Remember to distinguish between a character's inner narration and dialogue. Also indicate if a character is singing and put singing in italics. For example, here is how you would write this clip from Jaws (1975):
MARTIN BRODY: You heard him. Slow ahead. [muttering toward Hooper] Slow ahead. I can go slow ahead. Come on down and chum some of this s---.
[The shark pops out of the water inches from Brody. Brody slowly backs into the cabin where Quint is.]
MARTIN BRODY: You're gonna need a bigger boat.
[Quint goes out to see the shark.]
QUINT: Shut off that engine!
HOOPER: That's a twenty footer.
QUINT: Twenty-five. Three tons of him. (Jaws 1:17:30)
As far as in-text citation, cite the name of the film and the time stamp of the start of where in the film the lines originate. If citing two films with the same name, cite the year of release as well (e.g., Poltergeist 1984 1:13:15 vs. Poltergeist 2015 43:29). Citations consist of the film title in italics, the director, the lead performers or narrator, studio, and year.
Films referenced
Back to the Future. Directed by Robert Zemeckis, featuring Michael J. Fox and Christopher Lloyd. Universal, 1985.
Batman Begins. Directed by Christopher Nolan, featuring Christian Bale and Katie Holmes. Warner Bros., 2005.
Bettlejuice. Directed by Tim Burton, featuring Michael Keaton and Winona Ryder. Geffen/Warner Bros., 1988.
Casablanca. Directed by Michael Curtiz, featuring Humphrey Bogart and Ingrid Bergmen. Warner Bros., 1942.
Cruel Intentions. Directed by Robert Kumble, featuring Sarah Michelle Geller and Reese Witherspoon. Colombia, 1999.
The Dark Knight. Directed by Christopher Nolan, featuring Christian Bale and Heath Ledger. Warner Bros, 2008.
A Fistful of Dollars. Directed by Sergio Leone, featuring Clint Eastwood. United Artists, 1965.
The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly. Directed by Sergio Leone, featuring Clint Eastwood and Eli Wallach. United Artists, 1977.
Gremlins. Directed by Joe Dante. Warner Bros./Amblin, 1984.
Jaws. Directed by Stephen Spielberg, featuring Roy Scheider and Robert Shaw. Universal, 1975.
Jurassic Park. Directed by Steven Spielberg, featuring Sam Neill and Jeff Goldblum. Universal, 1993.
Mallrats. Directed by Kevin Smith, featuring Jason Lee and Ben Affleck. Universal, 1996.
Men in Black. Directed by Barry Sonnenfeld, featuring Will Smith and Tommy Lee Jones. Colombia/Amblin, 1997.
Mrs Doubtfire. Directed by Chris Colombus, featuring Robin Williams and Sally Field. Twentith Century Fox, 1993.
A Nightmare on Elm Street. Directed by Wes Craven, featuring Robert Englund. New Line, 1984.
No Country for Old Men. Directed by Joel and Ethen Coen, featuring Josh Brolin and Tommy Lee Jones. Miramax, 2007.
Rango. Directed by Gore Verbinski, featuring Johnny Depp and Isla Fisher. Nickelodeon Films, 2011.
Ride Along. Directed by Tim Story, featuring Ice Cube and Kevin Hart. Universal, 2014.
Roman Holiday. Directed by William Wyler, featuring Gregory Peck and Audrey Hepburn. Paramount, 1953.
Scream. Directed by Wes Craven, featuring Neve Campbell and Drew Barrymore. Dimension, 1996.
She's All That. Directed by Robert Iscove, featuring Freddie Prince Jr. and Rachel Leigh Cook. Miramax, 1999.
Shrek. Directed by Andrew Adamson and Vicky Jenson, featuring Mike Myers and Eddie Murphy. Dreamworks, 2001.
Some Like It Hot. Directed by Billy Wilder, featuring Tony Curtis, Jack Lemmon, and Marilyn Monroe. MGM, 1959.
Star Wars: A New Hope. Directed by George Lucas, featuring Mark Hamill and Harrison Ford. Twentieth Century Fox, 1977.
Under the Skin. Directed by Jonathan Glazer, featuring Scarlett Johansson. A24, 2013.
Whiplash. Directed by Damien Chazelle, featuring Miles Teller and J.K. Simmons. Blumhouse, 2014.
Back to the Future. Directed by Robert Zemeckis, featuring Michael J. Fox and Christopher Lloyd. Universal, 1985.
Batman Begins. Directed by Christopher Nolan, featuring Christian Bale and Katie Holmes. Warner Bros., 2005.
Bettlejuice. Directed by Tim Burton, featuring Michael Keaton and Winona Ryder. Geffen/Warner Bros., 1988.
Casablanca. Directed by Michael Curtiz, featuring Humphrey Bogart and Ingrid Bergmen. Warner Bros., 1942.
Cruel Intentions. Directed by Robert Kumble, featuring Sarah Michelle Geller and Reese Witherspoon. Colombia, 1999.
The Dark Knight. Directed by Christopher Nolan, featuring Christian Bale and Heath Ledger. Warner Bros, 2008.
A Fistful of Dollars. Directed by Sergio Leone, featuring Clint Eastwood. United Artists, 1965.
The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly. Directed by Sergio Leone, featuring Clint Eastwood and Eli Wallach. United Artists, 1977.
Gremlins. Directed by Joe Dante. Warner Bros./Amblin, 1984.
Jaws. Directed by Stephen Spielberg, featuring Roy Scheider and Robert Shaw. Universal, 1975.
Jurassic Park. Directed by Steven Spielberg, featuring Sam Neill and Jeff Goldblum. Universal, 1993.
Mallrats. Directed by Kevin Smith, featuring Jason Lee and Ben Affleck. Universal, 1996.
Men in Black. Directed by Barry Sonnenfeld, featuring Will Smith and Tommy Lee Jones. Colombia/Amblin, 1997.
Mrs Doubtfire. Directed by Chris Colombus, featuring Robin Williams and Sally Field. Twentith Century Fox, 1993.
A Nightmare on Elm Street. Directed by Wes Craven, featuring Robert Englund. New Line, 1984.
No Country for Old Men. Directed by Joel and Ethen Coen, featuring Josh Brolin and Tommy Lee Jones. Miramax, 2007.
Rango. Directed by Gore Verbinski, featuring Johnny Depp and Isla Fisher. Nickelodeon Films, 2011.
Ride Along. Directed by Tim Story, featuring Ice Cube and Kevin Hart. Universal, 2014.
Roman Holiday. Directed by William Wyler, featuring Gregory Peck and Audrey Hepburn. Paramount, 1953.
Scream. Directed by Wes Craven, featuring Neve Campbell and Drew Barrymore. Dimension, 1996.
She's All That. Directed by Robert Iscove, featuring Freddie Prince Jr. and Rachel Leigh Cook. Miramax, 1999.
Shrek. Directed by Andrew Adamson and Vicky Jenson, featuring Mike Myers and Eddie Murphy. Dreamworks, 2001.
Some Like It Hot. Directed by Billy Wilder, featuring Tony Curtis, Jack Lemmon, and Marilyn Monroe. MGM, 1959.
Star Wars: A New Hope. Directed by George Lucas, featuring Mark Hamill and Harrison Ford. Twentieth Century Fox, 1977.
Under the Skin. Directed by Jonathan Glazer, featuring Scarlett Johansson. A24, 2013.
Whiplash. Directed by Damien Chazelle, featuring Miles Teller and J.K. Simmons. Blumhouse, 2014.