Rhetoric is, simply, the art of persuasion. Whenever a parent is teaching a child how to behave, that's rhetoric. Whenever a politician gives a speech on the state of the nation, that's rhetoric. Whenever a soda company makes a heartwarming ad with Santa Claus to convince you to buy overpriced sugar acid, that's rhetoric. Rhetoric always argues for the reader or viewer to believe something (or not) or to do something (or not). The parent wants the child to not stick a fork in the toaster. The president wants you to believe America has a stronger economy. Coca-Cola wants you to buy their product.
There is only one goal in rhetoric:
TO WIN THE ARGUMENT
Rhetoric is arguably (ha!) the most important skill you ever learn. The ability to persuade others is tied to leadership roles in every industry, especially those involving sales and politics. The ability to evaluate if an argument is good or bad is key to survival. One day, you may even want those persuasive techniques to persuade that special guy or gal to marry you.
So if this is so important, why don't we learn this more in school? Actually, you do. Every essay you write is an argument. Every presentation you give is an argument. Every class debate is... okay, those are obviously arguments. While the end products may be different, all rhetoric has the same essential structure of thesis, claim, data, and warrant.
So if this is so important, why don't we learn this more in school? Actually, you do. Every essay you write is an argument. Every presentation you give is an argument. Every class debate is... okay, those are obviously arguments. While the end products may be different, all rhetoric has the same essential structure of thesis, claim, data, and warrant.
Thesis: What's the point?
The thesis is a statement of what you want the reader to believe or do. A thesis always starts off a formal argument at the end of the introduction, and is sometimes the introduction in its entirety. A thesis is always active, as it must tell a reader how to act or how to think. In product advertising, the thesis is always the same: buy our brand of thing! This thesis is often only implied and not directly stated. Here is an example thesis: "Instead of an “English” class, all schools should have separate and co-required courses in Literature (reading) and Composition (writing)." The argument of this paper couldn't be clearer, and readers know exactly what the paper will set out to prove.
Claims: What you believe
Claims are arguments that support the thesis. Like the thesis, they should all be active voice and concise. Each claim tends to start its own paragraph in the rhetorical essay. Claims often describe the effect the situation has on stakeholders, or those directly involved in a situation. For example, if the situation was on banning augmented reality games from museums on genocide, the stakeholders would be the museums in question, the game producers, the cell phone companies, and the gamer community. In our example, splitting English classes would affect students and their graduation requirements, English teachers, and counseling departments (who organize and schedule classes). Here are three claims that address those stakeholders and support the thesis:
Thesis: Instead of an “English” class, all schools should have separate and co-required courses in Literature (reading) and Composition (writing).
Claim: Students benefit from divided Literature and Composition classes.
Claim: Teachers also benefit from these divided classes.
Claim: While scheduling another required class seems like more work for counselors, it might alleviate other problems.
Thesis: Instead of an “English” class, all schools should have separate and co-required courses in Literature (reading) and Composition (writing).
Claim: Students benefit from divided Literature and Composition classes.
Claim: Teachers also benefit from these divided classes.
Claim: While scheduling another required class seems like more work for counselors, it might alleviate other problems.
Data: Evidence that you're right
Now each claim must be proven with data, which is evidence that a claim is true. Data can take the form of a statistic from a scientific study or survey, a quotation from an expert, a natural or biological fact, or a legal definition. Just as each claim has to relate to the thesis, every piece of evidence must relate to the claim. Since these facts often come from somewhere else, they are the sentences in your paper that require in-text citation. Focusing on the first claim above, the writer needs to find evidence that students benefit from divided classes.
Thesis: Instead of an “English” class, all schools should have separate and co-required courses in Literature (reading) and Composition (writing).
Claim: Students benefit from divided Literature and Composition classes.
Data: Studies by both the NEA and Department of Education across secondary grade levels have shown that about half of students are competent in reading, half are competent in writing, but only a third are competent in both (Booker 23).
Data: Nearly every college (92%) divides classes taught by the English department into those with literary content (Intro to Literature, Old English Literature, Mythology, etc) and those based in composition (Creative Writing, Technical Writing, Modern Grammar, etc) (Pew Research).
Thesis: Instead of an “English” class, all schools should have separate and co-required courses in Literature (reading) and Composition (writing).
Claim: Students benefit from divided Literature and Composition classes.
Data: Studies by both the NEA and Department of Education across secondary grade levels have shown that about half of students are competent in reading, half are competent in writing, but only a third are competent in both (Booker 23).
Data: Nearly every college (92%) divides classes taught by the English department into those with literary content (Intro to Literature, Old English Literature, Mythology, etc) and those based in composition (Creative Writing, Technical Writing, Modern Grammar, etc) (Pew Research).
Warrant: Connecting evidence and claims
Looking over the essay on English classes, the data seems good but incomplete. Why is that? Well, the writer hasn't proven that the data is relevant. Only a third of students can both read and write--why does that mean we should split English classes? Every data point needs to be followed with warrant, which is a reasonable explanation of how the data proves the claim. Let's use the legal system as a metaphor: in order for police to search a home, they have to go to a judge. The officers provide a claim of why they need to search the house and provide evidence that points to the house being a meth lab or a money laundering operation or whatever. The judge then has to see a reasonable connection between the officers' claim and the evidence to issue a warrant allowing a search. Just like the judge, you need to show your readers the connection between the facts and our claim.
Thesis: Instead of an “English” class, all schools should have separate and co-required courses in Literature (reading) and Composition (writing).
Claim: Students benefit from divided Literature and Composition classes.
Data: Studies by both the NEA and Department of Education across secondary grade levels have shown that about half of students are competent in reading, half are competent in writing, but only a third are competent in both (Booker 23).
Warrant: This leads to many students failing an English class when they struggle with only reading or writing. Splitting English into Literature and Composition fixes this grading imbalance by giving students an extra class in which they can succeed.
Data: Nearly every college (92%) divides classes taught by the English department into those with literary content (Intro to Literature, Old English Literature, Mythology, etc) and those based in composition (Creative Writing, Technical Writing, Modern Grammar, etc) (Pew Research).
Warrant: Splitting English classes into literature and composition at the secondary level can thus help students better prepare for college. In fact, AP classes already make this division for this very reason (CollegeBoard).
Thesis: Instead of an “English” class, all schools should have separate and co-required courses in Literature (reading) and Composition (writing).
Claim: Students benefit from divided Literature and Composition classes.
Data: Studies by both the NEA and Department of Education across secondary grade levels have shown that about half of students are competent in reading, half are competent in writing, but only a third are competent in both (Booker 23).
Warrant: This leads to many students failing an English class when they struggle with only reading or writing. Splitting English into Literature and Composition fixes this grading imbalance by giving students an extra class in which they can succeed.
Data: Nearly every college (92%) divides classes taught by the English department into those with literary content (Intro to Literature, Old English Literature, Mythology, etc) and those based in composition (Creative Writing, Technical Writing, Modern Grammar, etc) (Pew Research).
Warrant: Splitting English classes into literature and composition at the secondary level can thus help students better prepare for college. In fact, AP classes already make this division for this very reason (CollegeBoard).
Appeals: What makes a good argument
So we've looked at the structure of a proper argument. But what makes a good argument, a winning argument? Good arguments balance to the three rhetorical appeals defined by the philosopher Aristotle: logos, ethos, and pathos.
Logos (logic) appeals to our sense of reason: the arguments fit together and the data makes sense. There are no holes in how data ties to claims and nothing is added that shouldn't be included.
Pathos (passion) appeals to the reader's emotions. Arguments with strong pathos strike a reader's sense of anger, courage, joy, fear, surprise, sadness, or disgust by using strong imagery and relating directly to the audience. Pathetic arguments "feel right."
Ethos (ethics) appeals to our sense of trust that the argument is credible. If the article cites bad sources or goes against the reader's morality, it will not appeal ethically. One of the best ways to build ethos in an argument is to discuss the counterargument. The counterargument is the argument opposite of the thesis-- what the "other side" believes. In our example essay, the counterargument would be that schools should keep literature and composition combined as a single English class. A good essay would address this by stating the counterclaim, then refuting (disproving) it or making a small concession (admission that the "other side's" evidence is right but the warrant is wrong). This shows ethos by acknowledging the opposition, yet does not harm the essay because the opposing belief is disproven.
Thesis: Instead of an “English” class, all schools should have separate and co-required courses in Literature (reading) and Composition (writing).
Counter-argument: Splitting these classes would seem to hurt students that suffer at both literature and composition, as they would then fail two classes instead of one.
Refutation: However, statistics show that schools that split into Literature and Composition have less than 10% of students fail both classes, demonstrating that such an arrangement lowers the rate of student failure from 20% to 10% (Booker 24).
Counter-argument: Splitting English classes may create some problems in planning lessons, as state standards and textbooks are not separated into Literature and Composition.
Concession: While planning would indeed be initially difficult, solid teacher training would ameliorate this issue. As far as incorporating state standards, standardized tests like the ACT and SAT test literature and composition separately, so classes specially in standards only relevant to that discipline would actually better prepare students.
Logos (logic) appeals to our sense of reason: the arguments fit together and the data makes sense. There are no holes in how data ties to claims and nothing is added that shouldn't be included.
Pathos (passion) appeals to the reader's emotions. Arguments with strong pathos strike a reader's sense of anger, courage, joy, fear, surprise, sadness, or disgust by using strong imagery and relating directly to the audience. Pathetic arguments "feel right."
Ethos (ethics) appeals to our sense of trust that the argument is credible. If the article cites bad sources or goes against the reader's morality, it will not appeal ethically. One of the best ways to build ethos in an argument is to discuss the counterargument. The counterargument is the argument opposite of the thesis-- what the "other side" believes. In our example essay, the counterargument would be that schools should keep literature and composition combined as a single English class. A good essay would address this by stating the counterclaim, then refuting (disproving) it or making a small concession (admission that the "other side's" evidence is right but the warrant is wrong). This shows ethos by acknowledging the opposition, yet does not harm the essay because the opposing belief is disproven.
Thesis: Instead of an “English” class, all schools should have separate and co-required courses in Literature (reading) and Composition (writing).
Counter-argument: Splitting these classes would seem to hurt students that suffer at both literature and composition, as they would then fail two classes instead of one.
Refutation: However, statistics show that schools that split into Literature and Composition have less than 10% of students fail both classes, demonstrating that such an arrangement lowers the rate of student failure from 20% to 10% (Booker 24).
Counter-argument: Splitting English classes may create some problems in planning lessons, as state standards and textbooks are not separated into Literature and Composition.
Concession: While planning would indeed be initially difficult, solid teacher training would ameliorate this issue. As far as incorporating state standards, standardized tests like the ACT and SAT test literature and composition separately, so classes specially in standards only relevant to that discipline would actually better prepare students.
Fallacies: What makes a bad argument
While incorporating appeals and counterarguments make arguments stronger, misusing appeals can make an argument weaker. These are called rhetorical fallacies, and should be avoided at all cost. While there are dozens of fallacies in logos, pathos, and ethos, the most common fallacies are ad hominium, moving the goalpost, the gambler's fallacy, the authority fallacy, bandwagons, and creating a strawman:
- Ad hominum is as error in logos. Instead of attacking an argument, the writer attacks the person who said the argument instead. "Mr. Coon thinks English classes should be split, and he's an idiot, so that tells you all you need to know n the matter." Note that ad hominum does still apply to elections when actual people are the arguments. While one candidate for president can criticize the voting record or comments of another candidate, attacks on aspects of their lives like their family life and religion are considered off limits as they have nothing to do with the job of being president.
- Moving the goalpost is and error in ethos that refers to a writer's continual denial of evidence as "not being enough" to prove or disprove a point. For our thesis, it would be if the counterargument wanted more than just the two studies that confirmed that only a third of student do well in both reading and writing. So the writer provides six studies, and the other side then wants ten. If the burden of proof keeps moving, the argument can never be won.
- The gambler's fallacy is an error in logos referring to the idea that, as the universe is infinite, that everything has a probability of happening. This is false, as it ignores the very real limitation of physics, geography, time, and documented evidence. "Well, there's always a possibility that splitting classes will hurt student learning" is not a good argument--there needs to be proof, not just possibility.
- The authority fallacy is an error in logos referring to the claim that something is true because an authority says so. The authority could be religion, a political leader, tradition, or even upbringing. "I was raised with only one English class and I turned out fine, so there's no need to split them." While believing in an authority may inform a personal belief, it cannot be used evidence.
- A bandwagon is an error in pathos that refers to the idea that if everyone believes something, you should believe it too. "Everyone is splitting literature and composition classes, so we should too" is not a good argument, as fads and popularity don't make something right. Slavery was once popular. So was Nazism. So was the idea that the sun rotated around the Earth.
- A strawman is an error in ethos where the counterargument is convoluted into something less complex so it is easier to defeat. "You want to split English into two required classes: so you think English is more important than other subjects?" There are lots of good reasons to split English into two different classes, but the strawman ignores this and makes the conversation only about the prominence of English over other subjects.