Postcolonial literary theory falls into the category of SOCIETAL MIRRORS, or criticisms that reflect society (social mirrors also include Marxism, feminism, queer theory, affliction theory, and ecocriticism). Societal mirrors focus on the idea of The Other, a term for a person in society with little power or agency (the ability to change their circumstances). Those with agency are known as the privileged group, as they have access to resources that The Other does not. Some members of the privileged group actively work toward this inequality, while most members of the privileged group have social blindness--they do not willfully wish to subjugate others, but because their privilege is normal, they do not perceive or understand the struggles of The Other.
For an Other to occur, people have to be segregated into groups: Marxism groups based on social status and wealth, ecocriticism groups based on how human something is, affliction theory based on how "healthy and able" someone is, and feminism and queer theory group based on sex and gender. Postcolonialism groups based on groups: postcolonialism examines how people create ethnic, national, and cultural groups and how those groups come into conflict.
For an Other to occur, people have to be segregated into groups: Marxism groups based on social status and wealth, ecocriticism groups based on how human something is, affliction theory based on how "healthy and able" someone is, and feminism and queer theory group based on sex and gender. Postcolonialism groups based on groups: postcolonialism examines how people create ethnic, national, and cultural groups and how those groups come into conflict.
DIVISION OF TRIBES
Wait... what does this even mean? Postcolonialism relies on the anthropological idea of tribalism, which is the practice of humans creating cultural groups based on common beliefs and norms, familial lines, and geographical experiences. Essentially, people divide themselves into tribes because there is safety in numbers (and joy in companionship). A tribe usually contains members of one's immediate family and community. Tribes traditionally live in the same area, have access to the same resources, and have the same beliefs. Humans create tribes as a matter of instinct and protection: someone might attack an individual, but won't necessarily attack a group. For reasons of procreation, tribes always include members of both sexes (if the group doesn't jump to the queer theory lens), and for reasons of economic stability, always include various social classes (if not, jump to the Marxist lens).
Though we don't live in a series of connected huts anymore, modern society still divides itself into tribes based on nationality, social groups, and ethnicity.
Each of these tribes sets its own rules, called norms (what members of the tribe should do) and taboos (what members of the tribe should not do). Norms and taboos are taught by elders to members of the tribe and expected to be followed. Should someone break a norm or taboo, other members of the tribe deal out consequences on their own tribal terms, which could range from a shameful mark (like Hester Prynne's scarlet A) to banishment.
Though we don't live in a series of connected huts anymore, modern society still divides itself into tribes based on nationality, social groups, and ethnicity.
- Nations are groups that control an area of land and have established a ruling government -- examples include both modern countries, states, and national partnerships (like the EU or NATO.) As these definitions are based in geography, towns and communities also fall into this category (Fort Collins is such a better town than Greeley). While one can move to another nation, they are not automatically a member of whatever nation they are living in.
- Social groups are tribes we choice to be part of and are not limited to geography or shared cultural inheritance -- just shared enthusiasm. Sports fans are a great example--one can be a Denver Broncos fan even when not living in Colorado. This also covers economic entities, like work unions and fans of a certain brand (Apple people vs. Microsoft people).
- Ethnic groups are defined by similar genealogy, language, and beliefs. One is born into an ethnic group and learns about their ethnicity from family members. The two most common ethnic groups are groups based on race (skin color and social culture) and faith (religious belief). Note that while one can choose whichever faith they personally believe, most people are taught religion by their parents. More than any other postcolonial group, ethnic groups are seen as having little choice in their group affiliation.
Each of these tribes sets its own rules, called norms (what members of the tribe should do) and taboos (what members of the tribe should not do). Norms and taboos are taught by elders to members of the tribe and expected to be followed. Should someone break a norm or taboo, other members of the tribe deal out consequences on their own tribal terms, which could range from a shameful mark (like Hester Prynne's scarlet A) to banishment.
SO WHAT IS COLONIALISM?
Society divides itself into tribes based on similar beliefs. So what happens when the tribe meets a tribe with opposing beliefs? War. Think of nations fighting over land or sports fans arguing in a bar. Tribes always believe in their own superiority (after all, no one wants to join a losing team) and thus engage in conflict with other opposing tribes. And war only ends in three ways: 1) Both sides calling a truce and walking away, 2) Both sides completely destroying each other, or what happens most often, 3) One side overtaking and conquering the other.
Colonialism occurs when a conquering group overtakes a conquered group, changing the conquered group's norms and taboos. Think of the American colonies: in the late 1500s/early 1600s, British settlers encountered Native Americans and used their superior weapons to take land from the few natives who survived the plagues of smallpox brought by the Europeans. Some native tribes fought the settlers until they were all wiped out, some tribes fled for new lands out west, and some tried to make peace and live by rules established by the colonists.
Note that both groups, conquer and conquered, believe they are the better group. This leads the conquering group to marginalize the conquered--they take away the power and social status of the natives. Suddenly, natives don't make a bulk of their own decisions, do not see themselves in roles of power or media, and have fewer rights than the conquering class. In order to justify this inequality, the conquers create stereotypes about the natives. A stereotype is an idea that every member of a tribe acts in the same way because of their tribal association. Some stereotypes include "All Raiders fans are idiots," "All French people are cowards," and "all Asians are good at math." Even though the last example sounds positive, stereotypes always have a negative effect on the marginalized. Consider if you had Asian heritage and you were bad at math--hearing this stereotype might make you feel like you are letting down your tribe.
In response to marginalization, the conquered group (called the subaltern) show resistance, or opposition to giving power to the dominant group. Sometimes, this resistance builds up to a revolution, protests, and violence. While the subaltern reject stereotypes, they accept the premise of the stereotype: that every member of the tribe is the same (this is called strategic essentialism and is why every tribe feels that it's the best). Eventually, the subaltern must drive out the conquerors and reestablish their power or forever accept their role as a conquered class.
Colonialism occurs when a conquering group overtakes a conquered group, changing the conquered group's norms and taboos. Think of the American colonies: in the late 1500s/early 1600s, British settlers encountered Native Americans and used their superior weapons to take land from the few natives who survived the plagues of smallpox brought by the Europeans. Some native tribes fought the settlers until they were all wiped out, some tribes fled for new lands out west, and some tried to make peace and live by rules established by the colonists.
Note that both groups, conquer and conquered, believe they are the better group. This leads the conquering group to marginalize the conquered--they take away the power and social status of the natives. Suddenly, natives don't make a bulk of their own decisions, do not see themselves in roles of power or media, and have fewer rights than the conquering class. In order to justify this inequality, the conquers create stereotypes about the natives. A stereotype is an idea that every member of a tribe acts in the same way because of their tribal association. Some stereotypes include "All Raiders fans are idiots," "All French people are cowards," and "all Asians are good at math." Even though the last example sounds positive, stereotypes always have a negative effect on the marginalized. Consider if you had Asian heritage and you were bad at math--hearing this stereotype might make you feel like you are letting down your tribe.
In response to marginalization, the conquered group (called the subaltern) show resistance, or opposition to giving power to the dominant group. Sometimes, this resistance builds up to a revolution, protests, and violence. While the subaltern reject stereotypes, they accept the premise of the stereotype: that every member of the tribe is the same (this is called strategic essentialism and is why every tribe feels that it's the best). Eventually, the subaltern must drive out the conquerors and reestablish their power or forever accept their role as a conquered class.
Apparently, people don't like their land and culture being taken away. Imagine that. (Punch Magazine)
PUTTING THE POST IN POSTCOLONIAL
The two biggest tribe identifiers after nation are race and faith. "But we live in the United States, where we have equal rights and freedom of religion. Does this mean the struggles of colonialism don't matter anymore."
Actually, they matter more than ever.
Equal rights doesn't automatically make every aspect of society equal, and it certainly doesn't convince all tribes that every other tribe is equal. In a world after colonialism, or a post-colonial world, tribes not only struggle for equal treatment but recognition of their value as a tribe that is "not inferior." Post-colonialism, therefore, is dedicated to examining how old colonial relationships manifest themselves in modern day problems.
For example, in 1937, Japan invaded Nanking, the capital of the Republic of China, and massacred 300,000 soldiers and citizens, This atrocity was called The Rape of Nanking, and while Japan and China are seen as political allies and equals today, many Chinese citizens have a distrust and hatred for the Japanese people. Another example can be seen in the idea that banks are closed on Sundays in America, a tradition based on Puritan interpretations of the Ten Commandments and seemingly out of place in an online world of 24-hour-everything. In both examples, the colonizer (Japan, Christians) are not subjugating anyone anymore, yet the legacy of this marginalization subtly remains.
If groups feel marginalized, why don't they just stop looking through the lens of race and faith and focus on how everyone is equal? Not so fast. Tribes give a person identity, and to ignore or erase the tribe is to ignore or erase part of who a person is. The struggle of postcolonial society is to allow different tribes to peacefully and equally coexist without destroying them. Often, this comes to debates about discrimination, segregation, racism, and prejudice. Though these words sound like synonyms, they are definitely not the same:
For example, in 1937, Japan invaded Nanking, the capital of the Republic of China, and massacred 300,000 soldiers and citizens, This atrocity was called The Rape of Nanking, and while Japan and China are seen as political allies and equals today, many Chinese citizens have a distrust and hatred for the Japanese people. Another example can be seen in the idea that banks are closed on Sundays in America, a tradition based on Puritan interpretations of the Ten Commandments and seemingly out of place in an online world of 24-hour-everything. In both examples, the colonizer (Japan, Christians) are not subjugating anyone anymore, yet the legacy of this marginalization subtly remains.
If groups feel marginalized, why don't they just stop looking through the lens of race and faith and focus on how everyone is equal? Not so fast. Tribes give a person identity, and to ignore or erase the tribe is to ignore or erase part of who a person is. The struggle of postcolonial society is to allow different tribes to peacefully and equally coexist without destroying them. Often, this comes to debates about discrimination, segregation, racism, and prejudice. Though these words sound like synonyms, they are definitely not the same:
- Discrimination is the ability to tell two dissimilar things apart: that apple is different from that orange. Discrimination is actually human instinct and helps use survive (the red berry is poison and not like the blue berries, which are safe).
- Segregation is where different discriminate groups are separated, either by choice or by force. This could be physical and intentional (like Jewish ghettos during The Shoah) or conceptual and unintentional (like the achievement gap between white and nonwhite students in American public schools).
- Racism is when segregation is institutionalized, or reflected in the laws, norms, and taboos of society.
- Finally, prejudice is when a moral value is attached to a tribe thanks to racism. Originating from "judging before," prejudice is where a member of a tribe is judged based on stereotypes and experiences with a person's tribe than on their own merits (or, as Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. put it, "The content of their character."
Sometimes, it's all four at once. (Racism Review)
MORE THAN JUST RACE
It's good to keep in mind that race does not equate with just skin color but can incorporate the language one speaks, their place of birth, their manner of dress, and their religious beliefs. A literary example of this is A Tale of Two Cities, which examines tension between France and England, two "white Christian nations" which still deal with the legacy of the Norman conquest and the subsequent cycle of both nations trying to conquer the other.
While most modern societies are against prejudice and legal discrimination, some racism is so embedded in the norms and taboos of modern societies that it is often unnoticed by those outside the subaltern, like old building foundations in a modern city. For the subaltern to survive, they must view the world from the perspective of a dominant group--this is called double consciousness. Coined by Black scholar W.E.B. DuBois, double consciousness makes a marginalized person always consider which of their practices might make them a target for harassment and occasionally forces the person to sacrifice part of their cultural identity; an example would be a Muslim woman who doesn't wear a head scarf for fear of harassment. This double consciousness results in assimilation, or adopting rituals and practices from the conquering tribe. Assimilation is seen as negative as it breaks down the tribe's unique identity. Subaltern tribes also balk at appropriation, or when a dominant tribe engages in the dress, language, actions, or rituals of a subaltern group. While this may seem like flattering imitation, appropriation is seen by the subaltern as stealing what makes their tribe unique in order to feel better about marginalization.
So is racism and conflict based on colonial issues inevitable? Not at all. According to post-colonialism, awareness of marginalization can lead to laws and rules that marginalize the subaltern less. Once a conquered group is truly treated equally and the dominant group surrenders its strategic essentialism, the subaltern is given a voice in decide the norms and rules of society and becomes a cultural citizen. Double consciousness then ends, and those old foundations, to use the metaphor, are torn down for good.
While most modern societies are against prejudice and legal discrimination, some racism is so embedded in the norms and taboos of modern societies that it is often unnoticed by those outside the subaltern, like old building foundations in a modern city. For the subaltern to survive, they must view the world from the perspective of a dominant group--this is called double consciousness. Coined by Black scholar W.E.B. DuBois, double consciousness makes a marginalized person always consider which of their practices might make them a target for harassment and occasionally forces the person to sacrifice part of their cultural identity; an example would be a Muslim woman who doesn't wear a head scarf for fear of harassment. This double consciousness results in assimilation, or adopting rituals and practices from the conquering tribe. Assimilation is seen as negative as it breaks down the tribe's unique identity. Subaltern tribes also balk at appropriation, or when a dominant tribe engages in the dress, language, actions, or rituals of a subaltern group. While this may seem like flattering imitation, appropriation is seen by the subaltern as stealing what makes their tribe unique in order to feel better about marginalization.
So is racism and conflict based on colonial issues inevitable? Not at all. According to post-colonialism, awareness of marginalization can lead to laws and rules that marginalize the subaltern less. Once a conquered group is truly treated equally and the dominant group surrenders its strategic essentialism, the subaltern is given a voice in decide the norms and rules of society and becomes a cultural citizen. Double consciousness then ends, and those old foundations, to use the metaphor, are torn down for good.
Postcolonialism vs. Critical Race Theory (CRT): There's a BIG Difference
Postcolonialism as a literary lenses can sometimes be confused with Critical Race Theory (CRT), a controversial legal proposition that states that laws that are only created by one race cannot possibly be just to all races, and thus all legal principles in countries with a colonial or monocultural past need to be reviewed, rewritten, and reestablished for our multicultural modern world. While postcolonialism and CRT appear similar because they both consider tribalism, colonial past, the subaltern group, marginalization, and social norms, there are significant difference between the two:
- CRT is only focused on histories and outcomes based around race, while postcolonialism looks at race as just one of many foundations for tribes to form. Put another way, race sometimes is a factor in postcolonialism while race is always the factor in CRT. A Critical Race Theorist would have no interest in the tribal conflict between the little White English boys who fight for survival in Lord of the Flies, postcolonialism is very interested in those and all tribal dynamics.
- Postcolonialism is a critical lens that can apply to several discipline while CRT is a legal philosophy limited to legal matters. CRT can used to examine a law or a court case or a zoning rule, but it is useless when applied to anything else. Postcolonialism, on the other hand, can apply to laws, books, art, films, sports, and even conversations between people. Postcolonialism is a way of looking at the world that anyone can practice; CRT is a narrow way of arguing law that requires years of specialized training to understand.
- CRT makes judgments while postcolonialism makes observations. The biggest difference between CRT and postcolonialism (and what makes CRT so controversial in some academic circles) is that CRT is built on the premise that racial difference is prevalent and a societal bad -- this is why, in their eyes, the entire legal system needs an overhaul. Postcolonialism doesn't make such judgments. Instead of assuming a social structure has inequality based on race, a postcolonialist considers all types of tribes and whether or not their interaction causes inequality. Postcolonialism observes and reports what it finds; CRT assumes what's there and looks only for evidence that proves their assumption. Furthermore, postcolonialists take their observations and make objective generalizations without moral judgment, while CRT assumes injustice and immorality in all matters -- there always have to be bad actors for CRT, which is not at all true of postcolonial observation.
- CRT has a political agenda, while postcolonialism does not. The goal of CRT as a legal philosophy is to confront and change society -- its reason to exist is to radically alter the legal system by revising its every tenet. Postcolonialism exists to explain our world and can be used as a stepping stone to argue many sides if an issue. This is clear from the origins of each school of thought. CRT was created by lawyers, who are trained to push for their side, argue, and win. Postcolonialism was developed by anthropologists who wanted a way to communicate their observations in a clear and uniform way, objectively and without judgment.
SO HOW DO I READ LIKE A POSTCOLONIALIST?
Post-colonialists focus on marginalized groups, their prominence in a story, and their perspectives.
- A post-colonialist looks at what tribes are depicted in the text.
- A post-colonialist looks at how and why a tribe is marginalized.
- A post-colonialist looks at how marginalized characters resist the dominant culture.
- A post-colonialist looks for how the subaltern tells its history.
THE BREAKDOWN
- Post-colonialism focuses on the struggles between a conquering tribe and a conquered tribe (called the subaltern)
- Tribes are formed by nations, social groups, and ethnicity (race and religion)
- Look for how a character has to struggle because of their tribe
- Look for ways the dominant group marginalizes the subaltern
- Look for characters who resist giving up their cultural identity
- Look to see if the subaltern ever expresses their wants, desires, or perspective
- Look to see if marginalized characters sound real or like stereotypes
GREAT TEXTS TO READ FROM A POSTCOLONIAL LENS
- The Trojan Women by Euripides
- The Birds by Aristophanes
- Othello by William Shakespeare
- The Tempest by William Shakespeare
- Uncle Tom's Cabin by Harriett Beecher Stowe
- Hope Leslie by Catherine Maria Sedgewick
- A Tale of Two Cities by Charles Dickens
- Notes from a Native Son by James Baldwin
- The autobiographies of Frederick Douglass and Harriett Jacobs
- Invisible Man by Ralph Ellison
- I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings by Maya Angelou
- Lord of the Flies by William Golding
- To Kill a Mockingbird by Harper Lee
- March by John Lewis
- American Born Chinese by Gene Luen Yang
FURTHER CRITICAL READING
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